Annotated+Bibliography

Asher, James J. and Ramiro Garcia. “Optimal Age to Learn a Foreign Language.” The Modern Language Journal (May 1969): 334-341. JSTOR. Web. 18 Oct. 2010 . James J. Asher was a professor of Psychology at the San Jose State University in California. Ramiro Garcia had a position at Prospect High School in Saratoga, California. Garcia and Asher wrote “Optimal Age to Learn a Foreign Language” as a scientific study for language professionals, as it appears in a language journal. The article begins by stating several theories on the optimal age for foreign language acquisition such as the brain plasticity theory (younger brains are more receptive), the biological predisposition theory (an inborn capacity to learn a language that comes with a “critical period” or deadline) and imprinting theory (learn language from parents during a very early critical period). However, after introducing the theories, Garcia and Asher argue that children may not really have an advantage in learning a second language, but it may only be accelerated by learning through play. After introducing this information, Garcia and Asher introduce their procedure, design, and statistical results of their study, which used Cuban immigrant children who had learned their English in the United States and assessed their pronunciations. The statistical results are accompanied by explanations of their findings, which help to support the statistics. Children who were older when they entered the United States and learned English were more likely to maintain their foreign accent and less likely to achieve native-like pronunciation, for example. The longer a child was in the United States, especially at a younger age, the more likely they were to achieve native-like pronunciation. The highest probability of this result was when a child entered the US when age 6 or under and had lived there for at least 5 years. Another finding was that girls were more likely than boys to achieve a native-like pronunciation. However, as age increased, this gap lessened considerably. When time in the United States was considered, this gender gap also lessened once children were in the country 5-8 years. Also, overall findings were discussed. No child achieved a fully native pronunciation, but a near-native pronunciation was possible. Children who were the youngest when they entered and lived in the US the longest had the highest probability of achieving near-native pronunciation. The findings suggest that there is a variable with a strong impact on the ability to achieve a near-native pronunciation. Garcia and Asher theorize that this may be as a result of learning practices, as some of the older children also achieved a near-native pronunciation, which would make a biological factor less likely. The study is well-researched, and after the study is completed, Garcia and Asher adequately explain their findings. This study seems objective, as no information connecting the authors to a foreign language or ESL program has been found. This study taught me more about factors influencing foreign language such as age when starting the language and gender. The findings regarding age will be especially helpful to my research because they will help me add the component of age to finding the most effective type of foreign language program. This will highlight another area which is truly important to the effectiveness of foreign language programs; one could be in the most effective program type, but may not learn effectively if they are an older student.

Cloud, Nancy and Fred Genesee. “Multilingualism is Basic.” Educational Leadership (Mar. 1998): 62-65. EBSCOHost. Web. 8 Oct. 2010. . Nancy Cloud is an Associate Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Hofstra University. Fred Genesee is the Director of the Division of Education at the University of California-Davis. They wrote “Multilingualism is Basic” as an editorial for educational professionals, as it appears in an educational journal. Cloud and Genesee argue that, for students to survive in an increasingly global society, foreign language education is a necessity. The main arguments are the educational, cognitive, and social benefits of foreign language. This is followed by descriptions of effective foreign language programs for language majority students (those who speak the major language of a country) and developmental bilingual programs (for those who do not speak the major language of the country in which they live.) Evidence is from in one of Genesee’s 1987 studies and programs that have actually been used, such as English speaking Canadian students taking a French immersion course and French immersion programs in Washington D.C. The work is logically organized, and well-researched. Cloud and Genesee adequately cover the topic as they not only discuss the several benefits of foreign language education, but which programs are the most effective to bring about these benefits. The authors may be biased if any of their previous positions were in foreign language education. This source was ultimately very helpful to my research because it not only taught me about several benefits of foreign language education, including the cognitive benefits on which my project focuses, but also about major methods of teaching foreign language. This information about cognitive benefits will help add to my past findings and help me argue the importance of finding the most effective method for teaching foreign language. Information on some of the teaching methods found in the article will help me determine their positive and negative traits. Overall, this source will help both major components of my project- cognitive benefits of foreign language and the most effective method for teaching it.

Cooper, Thomas C. “Foreign Language Study and SAT-Verbal Scores.” The Modern Language Journal (Winter 1987): 381-387. JSTOR. Web. 6 Oct. 2010 . Thomas C. Cooper, an Associate Professor of Foreign Language Education at the University of Georgia with a PhD in foreign language education and minors in German literature and educational administration from Florida State University, published a study on foreign language’s influence on SAT Verbal scores. It is intended for those who study language, as it was published in a language journal. The article starts by summarizing beliefs about studying a foreign language and the SAT, as well as some information about the SAT itself. It then summarizes the purpose, design, and statistical results of the study. The meaning of these findings is found in the conclusion. The conclusion states that studying a foreign language did improve test scores. Full benefits on test scores occurred when students took a foreign language for more than a year (not a semester.) Also, benefits depended on the type of language. German students received the highest test scores, followed by French, Latin, and Spanish students. Cooper believes these benefits may be based on the way many teachers teach a world language such as learning vocabulary in context, demonstrating specific nuances in vocabulary meaning, and using context clues to determine the meaning of an unknown word. Cooper states, based on his study, the variable that had the closest relation to SAT Verbal performance was the duration of foreign language study over the years. The study is well researched and Cooper presents his findings clearly. After addressing the study itself, Cooper more than adequately addresses his findings and connects them back to the main purpose of the experiment- to find a link between foreign language variables and SAT Verbal scores. While this is a study, Cooper may still be biased due to his role in foreign language education and his studies of German (German was listed as the most effective language for improving SAT Verbal scores.) This study taught me about more benefits of foreign language education that I had not read before, such as the significance of the choice of language on benefits. The study and its findings as a whole would be helpful for my argument because it focuses on one specific area of cognitive benefits of foreign language education- verbal benefits. This source will help me make the cognitive component of my research more detailed and allow me to differentiate it into different sections.

Curtain, Helena. Foreign Language Learning: An Early Start. ERIC Digests. Web. 30 Sept. 2010. < http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/start.htm>. Helena Curtain has much experience in teaching language. She has been Foreign Language Curriculum Specialist for the Milwaukee Public Schools and an Associate Professor at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, responsible for foreign language teachers programs. The article is an ERIC article, meant for teachers, and is an overview of numerous foreign language benefits. Curtain argues in favor of foreign language education in the article. Her topics are higher foreign language achievement, a more global attitudes, cognitive benefits, communication skills, and additional personal benefits. Once she establishes these benefits, she cites a great deal of evidence in a section devoted to her sources and their findings (this section is called “Information Sources for Developing a Rationale.”) Specifically, her references to Wisconsin’s curriculum requirements for foreign language, which cites its academic benefits, would be helpful to my topic. The article is well organized and well researched, as indicated by her list of references and the section entitled “Information Sources for Developing a Rationale.” Curtain’s overview tries to encompass many facets of foreign language benefits, but does not focus in-depth on any one type of benefit. However, this is an adequate for an overview of its numerous benefits. Her overview may be biased by her involvement in foreign language education, perhaps motivating her to argue in favor of it. From this overview, I learned about several other kinds of foreign language benefits, such as a global perspective. This information may help me connect the cognitive benefits of foreign language to its other benefits and enrich my research.

Gouin, Donna. “Report on Current Practice: Immersion Program in Montgomery, County Maryland.” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 62-64. Print. Donna Gouin has taught the French immersion program in Montgomery County (Maryland) schools for seventeen years and is the head of the program. She wrote this report on the program for those interested in foreign language education, as it appears in a book on the subject. Gouin does not argue a point in this article, but instead states how the program works. Specifically, she states how the program works in the situation of a student with a speech or learning disability. She first explains how the Educational Management Team (EMT) handles this type of situation. For example, a meeting of the EMT consists of the teacher and student’s parents giving reports on any concerns, strengths, weaknesses, etc. The team then recommends a course of action, which may include screening for learning disabilities. Next, Gouin describes the testing process, stating that the discrepancy between the child’s actual abilities, which are tested in English, and what the student is doing in class (taught in French) is a problem in this scenario. Gouin also documents the role of the resource room for students that have learning disabilities. Immersion continues in the resource room and consists of games and activities at younger ages and reading for older ages. Next, classroom accommodations are discussed. These include oral assessments, working on handwriting skills, and using physical objects to help with certain math concepts. Gouin concludes by stating that students with learning disabilities who stay with the program can still successfully complete the program and that gives them a great deal of confidence. Gouin’s evidence is her experience with the program. This will help me address any concerns with the practicality of immersion programs by giving me a specific example for reference. The article is logically written and Gouin adequately addresses the subject of learning disabled students’ abilities in immersion programs. However, Gouin may be biased by her continuing role in the program she describes. This source taught me about a working immersion program. Its address of concerns in the case of students with learning disabilities will help me build an argument against concerns in this area of immersion programs. This working model of an immersion program will also allow me to develop more of an argument for the effectiveness of immersion programs in the acquisition of foreign language and cognitive benefits.

Heining-Boynton, Audrey L. “What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of FLES, FLEX, and Immersion?” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 1-4. Print. Audrey L. Heining-Boynton is a Professor of Spanish and Education at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. She wrote this article for both foreign language teachers and parents of students, as it appears in a book meant for both groups. The article is an informational report, which objectively states the pros and cons of Immersion, FLEX (Foreign Language Experience) and FLES (Foreign Language in the Elementary School). The article starts by introducing the three programs. FLES is a program in elementary schools meant to teach the skills of a foreign language (i.e. reading, writing, speaking, and listening) that meets at different times during the week, but definite dates and times may vary. FLEX programs occur over a fixed time period, such a one semester, and teach students about the language and the culture that surrounds it, not about foreign language skills. Immersion programs are programs in which the entire curriculum (math, science, English, etc.) is taught in a foreign language. Boynton then enters into the pros and cons of the program types. Pros of all programs are introduced first, followed by their respective cons. For example, FLES allows the students to only use the language in certain settings and is often the target of budget cuts during difficult times, but does allow students to pick up language learning strategies and take academic risks. FLEX programs are the most effective for exposing students to foreign cultures, but can also easily degenerate into stereotypical generalizations of the culture. Immersion is the most effective choice for language acquisition, as the entire curriculum is taught in the foreign language. However, it may be difficult to find a properly qualified teacher and accurate, reliable materials. Boynton uses facts about each type of program to build her article. The facts about the pros and cons of each article will be the most helpful to my research. The work has a logical order as it introduces the programs, the positives of the programs, and the negatives of the programs, in that order. Boynton’s material adequately introduces the three types of programs and their respective positive and negative effects on the student. Boynton’s stance seems objective, as she does not seem to emphasize one program type more than another, but simply states facts about each. The source taught me about three of the most well-known foreign language teaching methods. Boynton’s article will help me decide which foreign language program yields the best results in terms of cognitive benefits when I cross-reference benefits of each program type with the causes of cognitive benefits.

Holobow, Naomi E. “A Report on Research: The Suitability of Immersion for All Majority-Language Children.” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 68-73. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Naomi E. Holobow has a Ph.D. from the University of Edinburgh. She is a marketing research analyst who formerly worked with McGill University’s Language Research Group. The Language Research Group focused on learning of second languages, specifically immersion programs. Her report on research is meant for those curious about foreign language learning, as it appears in a book on the subject. Holobow evaluates the effectiveness of immersion programs for students with low academic ability (based on IQ scores,) disabilities in their first language, low socioeconomic status, or an ethnic minority status. Holobow first introduces immersion and alternative forms of immersion that also exist. These alternative forms of immersion differ from immersion in starting point (grade level) or percentage of curriculum taught in the target language (100 percent or 50 percent.) According to studies, the most effective alternative programs are started early (usually refers to a start in kindergarten) and are 100 percent in the target language. In the case of low academic ability students, studies have found that these students are still able to learn a second language; there were only issues when these students had motivational problems, such as a negative attitude towards school. Studies found that students with first language disabilities in early total immersion programs did not have hindered performance when compared with English-only counterparts and made good progress in their programs. In the case of students with a low socioeconomic status, it was found that working class students in immersion programs scored similarly to English-only working class students and middle class students in immersion programs scored similarly to English-only middle class students in the areas tested. Also, in terms of target language achievement in listening comprehension and speaking, the working class and middle class immersion students scored similarly. The working class students suffered no setbacks in academic progress as a result of participating in immersion programs. In the case of ethnic minority students, studies indicated that these students scored as well as ethnic majority students. Another study on ethnic minority students indicated that they scored similarly on English assessments with their English-only peers. The evidence in the article is the results of studies. These studies indicate that in the case of language majority students, even those in “at risk” groups, immersion is generally the most effective second language teaching method. This will help to bolster my argument in favor of immersion programs, by allowing me to highlight its accessibility to language majority students. The work is clear and very well researched. Holobow has adequately addressed immersion programs and their use with “at risk” groups in an objective manner. This source taught me about some of the concerns that could impact immersion programs and how these specific concerns are generally unfounded. This will help me support and develop my argument in favor of immersion programs by increasing my body of research and allowing me to add another specific subargument to my research paper.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Lyster, Roy. “Focus on Form in Content Based Instruction.” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 105-109. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Roy Lyster has a Ph.D. from the University of Toronto. He is an Associate Professor and Certificate Program Director in the Department of Second Language Education at McGill University and has had experience working in immersion classrooms. He wrote this report for individuals interested in second language education, as it appears in a book on the subject. The report addresses the findings of Lyster and his team in content-based language classrooms. They found that restating what a student said with a minor correction, such as the article, was not perceived as a correction, but rather as alternative way to communicate something. Also, in the case of positively reinforcing comments, these comments were given after correct responses, almost correct responses, and grammatically incorrect responses, which did not give students clear understanding of what was correct in their speech. Next, it was found that there are more successful ways to focus on form in second language classrooms. This includes integrating communicative activities that highlight the language structure. Also, the team found there are four main corrective techniques that are less likely to confuse students. These include asking questions to the students on information they already know (elicitation,) providing comments related to the flaws in the student response (metalinguistic clues,) asking students to clarify their response if it is flawed (clarification request,) or repetition of the student response while using intonation to highlight the errors. The evidence in the article is in the observation of Lyster and his teams, as well as studies that have been conducted. These studies will allow me to address problems that can occur in foreign language teaching, should they come up in the course of my research paper or other research product. The work is well researched and Lyster has adequately addressed both the problems and possible solutions. Lyster does seem objective in his findings and his experience in immersion programs might give him greater insight into the problems and solutions of second language education. This source taught me about problems that can arise in foreign language teaching and how to address them. This will help me support and develop my argument by allowing me address counterarguments that could arise in communication between the students and teacher.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Met, Myriam. “Foreign Language on Starting Early.” Educational Leadership (Sept 1991): 88-89. EBSCOHost. Web. 14 Oct. 2010. <http://search.ebscohost.com>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Myriam Met is the Foreign Language Coordinator of Montgomery County Schools in Maryland. “Foreign Language on Starting Early” is intended for teachers, as it is in an educational journal. Met argues in favor of foreign language education and discusses several approaches to teaching it. Her major points of discussion are immersion programs, FLES (Foreign Language in Elementary School) programs, and FLEX (Foreign Language Experience Programs). To support her arguments, she writes the basic facts about each type of program, discusses pros and cons of each, and adds additional support through research findings. The work is well organized, with a clear introduction and conclusion and clearly defined subtopics that flow into each other smoothly. The topic has been adequately addressed as it is only meant to introduce each teaching method. However, Met may be biased by the fact that she works closely with foreign language. Also, she seems to favor immersion language programs over other options, which may show bias, as it is an overview of foreign language teaching methods in elementary schools. From this article, I learned about three major methods of teaching foreign language. This will help me find an answer to the second portion of my essential question, which focuses on the most effective method of foreign language study for the delivery of cognitive benefits and support my final argument through its descriptions of pros and cons.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Oxford, Rebecca. Language Learning Strategies: An Update. Center for Applied Linguistics, 1994. Web. 19 Oct. 2010. <http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/oxford01.html>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rebecca Oxford currently has a position as a Professor and Director of the Second Language Education Program at the University of Maryland, College Park. At the time of writing “Language Learning Strategies: an Update,” she held a foreign language position at the University of Alabama. The work is an informational report for language professionals, as it appears on a site for linguistics. The article is not an argument for or against anything, but seeks to discuss the learning strategies that language students apply when in a foreign language classroom. Oxford first defines what makes a “good language learner” and analyzes the effectiveness of their strategies. Next, she describes factors that can influence the choice of which and how many strategies the learners will use, such as age, gender, and motivation. After this material, Oxford describes how to go about teaching learning strategies to language learners. She then discusses how there has been debate over how to classify these learning strategies and what these findings mean for foreign language teachers in terms of training, teaching style, etc. Oxford cites the studies of others, as well as her own studies to add support to her article. The evidence cited in factors that influence learning strategies and implications for teachers will likely be the most helpful to my research as they will help me give my audience a greater understanding of how teaching foreign language works and how it helps the individual cognitively. The work is well-researched and follows a logical flow from start to finish. Oxford adequately addresses the components of second language learning strategies and their implications for teachers. The article itself seems objective, but Oxford’s choice of topic may be influenced by her numerous experiences with foreign language. From this source, I learned how students learn foreign languages. The implications of learning style will be helpful to my analysis of effective teaching style and will allow me to address the needs of the foreign language learner in my final products.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Porter, Catherine. "English Is Not Enough." Chronicle of Higher Education 18 Apr. 2010: ProQuest Education Journals, ProQuest. Web. 24 Sep. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=2015789651&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=148420&RQT=309&VName=PQD>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Catherine Porter, professor emerita of French at the State University of New York College at Cortland and president of the Modern Language Association in 2009, wrote “English is not Enough” as a commentary on the importance of foreign language education. As the article appears in an education journal, its audience is other educators. Porter argues that educating American students in foreign language is crucial to interactions within America and its international relations. Porter cites the cognitive, diplomatic and societal benefits that occur when a student has extended foreign language education. The research she cites includes how foreign language education can change the mind’s structure and also help stave off dementia, which supports my argument of cognitive benefits from foreign language. She also states facts about the disadvantage monolingual people have in foreign countries. The article is logically organized and easy to follow, with one idea flowing naturally into the next. Because Porter cites many different types of benefits of learning foreign language, she adequately covers the topic. The article is biased in favor of foreign language education, a position Porter may argue because she is a French professor. This source not only taught me about the cognitive benefits of learning a foreign language, which is my research topic, but its other benefits as well, such as societal benefits. This information has helped me focus more on a topic as I work to narrow it down further and could provide useful introductory material in my final presentation.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Robinson, Deborah Wilburn. “The Cognitive, Academic, and Attitudinal Benefits of Early Language Learning.” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 37-43. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Deborah Wilburn Robinson has a Ph.D. from The Ohio State University. She is an Assistant Professor in the College of Education, Foreign and Second Language Program at Ohio State. She has also had 18 years of experience teaching French and Spanish in FLEX, FLES, and immersion settings. This report is for anyone interested in the benefits of foreign language education, as it appears in a book on the subject of foreign language education that is not necessarily targeted for teachers. Robinson argues in favor of foreign language by citing numerous studies that point to its benefits. These are divided into cognitive, academic, and attitudinal benefits. The studies that focus on cognitive benefits found that learning a second language found that foreign language students had a more varied set of mental abilities, increased grammatical awareness in their first language (English, in the case of the study,) and improved nonverbal problem solving abilities and divergent thinking. The academic studies found students who take a second language perform better on standardized tests in core subjects (including English) than their English-only peers, improved reading abilities, became proficient in a foreign language (in the case of immersion programs,) and scored higher on the verbal section of the SAT. It was also found that foreign language study can be helpful to children with learning disabilities. Attitudinal benefits from the studies included appreciation for other cultures, friendliness towards people the students considered different than themselves, and an understanding of the students’ own culture. Also, the majority of studies in all subject areas indicated these benefits were more likely to occur if the students began learning the language before age 11. The evidence in the article is scientific studies. The studies tied to immersion programs will be helpful in helping me argue the benefits of immersion programs over other foreign language teaching methods. The article is very well-organized and sufficiently addresses the topic. However, while most of Robinson’s article is based on the results of scientific studies, she may be biased by her strong role in foreign language instruction over the years. This source taught me about the numerous benefits of foreign language in more detail than other sources have. The studies in cognitive, academic, and attitudinal benefits related to immersion programs will help to support and develop my argument in favor of immersion programs by increasing my body of evidence.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rubio, C. Albert. “A Rationale for Immersion.” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 15-20. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">C. Albert Rubio is the Director of Instruction and Staff Development for the Visiting International Faculty Program in Chapel Hill. He has also had experience as the president of the Foreign Language Association of North Carolina. This editorial is meant for those curious about the issues that appear in early foreign language education as it appears in a book on this subject. Rubio argues in favor of immersion programs. He starts fist by introducing the immersion program, a program in which instruction for all subjects (math, science, English, history) occurs in the target language. He then traces their rise in popularity, which he attributes to its goals. These goals are proficiency in a target language, the learning of curriculum appropriate to age, developing age appropriate English skills, and developing a cultural appreciation for the target language. Rubio then discusses the ideal situation for an immersion program, such as age of children, required materials, teaching qualifications, and teaching methods (in terms of assessing comprehension). He also addresses some problems with the program, such as lack of near-native pronunciation and grammatical errors, which Rubio attributes to lack of interaction with native pronunciation outside the classroom. However, it has been found, that regardless of academic ability, almost all students can have some degree of success in an immersion programs. Also, an immersion program allows the students’ perceptual maps of English and the target language to develop together, once English becomes a subject in the curriculum. This prevents students from becoming confused between the rules of each language. Also, immersion students tend to have better academic success than English only students, even when the exams are administered in English. Also, studies have found that immersion provides students with several cognitive benefits, such as divergent thinking, and nonverbal problem solving skills. Also, once English is introduced into their curriculum, the students catch up to and often surpass their English only peers in English skills. Also, Rubio stresses the importance of interaction with native speakers of the language (such as in a study abroad scenario) as a vital part of a successful immersion program. Rubio’s argument is supported by the findings of several studies. These studies, especially the studies connecting immersion programs to cognitive benefits will be extremely helpful to my research. The article is logically ordered, introducing the subject, addressing concerns when necessary, and citing its numerous benefits. The topic has been adequately addressed as it discusses both benefits and potential concerns as they arise. Rubio may be biased due to his past role in foreign language. However, the article has taught me in-depth information about immersion programs. This will help to support my argument because it will give me information about the numerous benefits of immersion programs. Rubio’s article will help me develop my argument as it shows a concrete link between cognitive benefits and a particular teaching method (immersion.)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Stewart, Janice Hostler. “Foreign Language Studies in Elementary Schools: Benefits and Implications for Achievement in Reading and Math.” Early Childhood Education Journal (Aug. 2005): 11-16. EBSCOHost Education Research Complete. Web. 30 Sept. 2010. <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Janice Hostler Stewart has a Doctorate of Education from Indiana University of Pennsylvania and has been associated with the Hempfield Area School District in Greensburg, PA, though her exact position could not be found upon a search of their website. Stewart wrote “Foreign Language Studies in Elementary Schools: Benefits and Implications for Achievement in Reading and Math” as an editorial proposing a new solution to improving reading and math scores- foreign language study. This is a piece intended for others in the field of education; it comes from an education journal. Stewart argues that exposure to foreign language in early elementary school produces cognitive benefits that can improve reading and math scores. The topics covered are the problem of improving scores, the possible solution of teaching foreign language, and methods of teaching foreign language (immersion, FLES, and FLEX.) It then covers the benefits of foreign language, including academic and cognitive benefits. Stewart cites several scientific studies and her own experiences with foreign language students to support her argument. These scientific studies and their findings can help to support my own argument. Stewart has clearly done much research for this article and has made it very easy for the reader to follow. Stewart’s topic is focused on the academic benefits of foreign language. While this is only one of many varieties of foreign language, Stewart sufficiently covers her topic. Stewart’s role in foreign language education may make her more likely to argue in favor of foreign language education, but, at the same time, she also cites several studies on the topic, which may lessen any potential bias. From this source, I learned just how numerous the academic benefits of foreign language are. These benefits, along with the studies that support them may help my argument. In addition, researching some of the studies mentioned may help to bolster and strengthen my research.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Torres, Irma. “Report on Current Practice: K-8 Program in Ferndale, Michigan.” Critical Issues in Early Second Language Learning: Building Our Children’s Future. Ed. Myriam Met. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers, 1998. 60-61. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Irma Torres is the Foreign Language Coordinator in Ferndale, Michigan’s Public Schools. She also teaches Spanish in the district, with experience at the elementary and high school levels. Torres’s article is meant for both the educator and the parent, as it appears in a book for members of both groups curious about issues that impact foreign language learning. The article discusses Ferndale’s philosophy on foreign language and explains how the program works for students (the majority of whom are native speakers of English) and how it is applied to students with disabilities. Programs begin in kindergarten for the language assigned to the school (French, Spanish, or German). This continues through the students’ senior year of high school. In the case of students with disabilities, teachers are advised on how to proceed in the case of that particular student by those who work with them in the resource room. For example, a student may be switched to an informal oral assignment, as opposed to a writing assignment. The article then concludes with a brief summary of Torres’s findings. Her evidence is her experience with the district’s foreign language policies. This case study of the district gives me a specific example of how schools may realistically implement a foreign language program to benefit all students. The article is easy to follow and Torres has adequately reported on the practice of Ferndale schools. However, Torres’s role in the foreign language programs at Ferndale may bias her article. This source taught me about Ferndale’s foreign language programs. This source helps me build my argument by showing me an effective model of a working foreign language program. This specific report will help me develop my argument by showing me a program that has actually been implemented, which I can compare with other reports of this type in order to find what makes a foreign language program effective.